JavaScript closures and lexical scope fundamentals

                  // Basic closure example
function outer() {
  const message = 'Hello from outer';

  function inner() {
    console.log(message); // Accesses outer variable
  }

  return inner;
}

const closure = outer();
closure(); // "Hello from outer"

// Counter with closure (data privacy)
function createCounter() {
  let count = 0; // Private variable

  return {
    increment() {
      count++;
      return count;
    },
    decrement() {
      count--;
      return count;
    },
    getCount() {
      return count;
    }
  };
}

const counter = createCounter();
console.log(counter.increment()); // 1
console.log(counter.increment()); // 2
console.log(counter.getCount());  // 2
// console.log(counter.count); // undefined - private!

// Multiple independent closures
const counter1 = createCounter();
const counter2 = createCounter();

counter1.increment(); // 1
counter2.increment(); // 1
counter2.increment(); // 2
console.log(counter1.getCount()); // 1 (independent)

// Closure in loops (classic problem)
// Wrong way
for (var i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
  setTimeout(function() {
    console.log(i); // Prints 3, 3, 3
  }, 100);
}

// Fixed with IIFE
for (var i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
  (function(j) {
    setTimeout(function() {
      console.log(j); // Prints 0, 1, 2
    }, 100);
  })(i);
}

// Modern fix with let
for (let i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
  setTimeout(function() {
    console.log(i); // Prints 0, 1, 2
  }, 100);
}

// Function factory with closures
function multiplier(factor) {
  return function(number) {
    return number * factor;
  };
}

const double = multiplier(2);
const triple = multiplier(3);

console.log(double(5));  // 10
console.log(triple(5));  // 15

// Private methods pattern
function BankAccount(initialBalance) {
  let balance = initialBalance; // Private

  // Private method
  function validateAmount(amount) {
    return typeof amount === 'number' && amount > 0;
  }

  // Public methods
  this.deposit = function(amount) {
    if (validateAmount(amount)) {
      balance += amount;
      return balance;
    }
    throw new Error('Invalid amount');
  };

  this.withdraw = function(amount) {
    if (validateAmount(amount) && amount <= balance) {
      balance -= amount;
      return balance;
    }
    throw new Error('Invalid or insufficient amount');
  };

  this.getBalance = function() {
    return balance;
  };
}

const account = new BankAccount(100);
account.deposit(50);   // 150
account.withdraw(30);  // 120
console.log(account.getBalance()); // 120
// account.balance // undefined - private!

// Closure with event handlers
function setupButton(buttonId, message) {
  const button = document.getElementById(buttonId);

  button.addEventListener('click', function() {
    console.log(message); // Closure over message
  });
}

setupButton('btn1', 'Button 1 clicked');
setupButton('btn2', 'Button 2 clicked');

// Module pattern
const calculator = (function() {
  // Private variables and functions
  let result = 0;

  function validateNumber(n) {
    if (typeof n !== 'number') {
      throw new Error('Not a number');
    }
  }

  // Public API
  return {
    add(n) {
      validateNumber(n);
      result += n;
      return this;
    },
    subtract(n) {
      validateNumber(n);
      result -= n;
      return this;
    },
    multiply(n) {
      validateNumber(n);
      result *= n;
      return this;
    },
    getResult() {
      return result;
    },
    reset() {
      result = 0;
      return this;
    }
  };
})();

calculator.add(5).multiply(3).subtract(2);
console.log(calculator.getResult()); // 13

// Memoization with closure
function memoize(fn) {
  const cache = {}; // Closure variable

  return function(...args) {
    const key = JSON.stringify(args);

    if (key in cache) {
      console.log('From cache');
      return cache[key];
    }

    console.log('Calculating...');
    const result = fn(...args);
    cache[key] = result;
    return result;
  };
}

const expensiveSum = memoize((a, b) => {
  // Simulate expensive operation
  for (let i = 0; i < 1000000000; i++) {}
  return a + b;
});

console.log(expensiveSum(5, 3)); // Calculating... 8
console.log(expensiveSum(5, 3)); // From cache 8

// Partial application
function partial(fn, ...fixedArgs) {
  return function(...remainingArgs) {
    return fn(...fixedArgs, ...remainingArgs);
  };
}

function greet(greeting, name) {
  return `${greeting}, ${name}!`;
}

const sayHello = partial(greet, 'Hello');
console.log(sayHello('Alice')); // "Hello, Alice!"
console.log(sayHello('Bob'));   // "Hello, Bob!"

// Lexical scope example
const globalVar = 'global';

function outer() {
  const outerVar = 'outer';

  function middle() {
    const middleVar = 'middle';

    function inner() {
      const innerVar = 'inner';

      // Can access all outer scopes
      console.log(innerVar);  // 'inner'
      console.log(middleVar); // 'middle'
      console.log(outerVar);  // 'outer'
      console.log(globalVar); // 'global'
    }

    inner();
  }

  middle();
}

outer();